Update to version 1703 failing

Oh I'm sorry I indeed forgot to upload the winver.
It's version 1607, build 14393.1358 (Win10 Home 64-bit)

It was completely in clean boot state, nothing else except windows elements were running.
I uninstalled Avira (antivirus) and my firewall, because they refused to disable themselves in msconfig. (But normally they shouldn't interfere with the update because other devices at home upgraded to 1703 without any issue, while these were installed)

Last update was KB4013214, on June 29th (the same day at which I performed the first attempt to update to 1703)
Edit: that's the update that contains the preparation for your privacy-settings. (to start the 1703 upgrade)

Since the installation failed once more in clean boot state, I suspect it's hardware/driver related rather than software (hence the CRITICAL_PROCESS_DIED code in the BSOD)

Isn't there anything inside the Panther log that indicates faulty drivers or registry entries?

In the logs I cannot find the error code that you posted. That is usually where you start and work backwards. All of the logs including CBS old and DISM old were checked for the error that you posted.
Have you yet been to technet? That is where I learned. They have some experts there on reading the logs. There tough to interpret as they use codes and general terms that may have little meaning to even tech pros. See if you can post it there for this challenging case.
If your error code is correct its a puzzle that it is not in any of the logs. The error code is for the second boot phase. That is the 4000d but again that was not found in the logs.

2017-07-05 10:19:41, Info CBS Client specifies manual store corruption detect or repair.
2017-07-05 10:19:42, Info CBS Exec: Session processing started. Client: Manual, Session(DISM Package Manager Provider Store Corruption Detect/Repair): 30602599_1942279522
2017-07-05 10:22:11, Info CSI 00000005 StoreCorruptionRepair transaction begun. WcpVersion: [l:45]'10.0.14393.1439 (rs1_release_sec.170519-2028)'.
2017-07-05 10:22:11, Info CSI 00000006@2017/7/5:08:22:11.930 Starting corruption detection (InnerFlags=5)
2017-07-05 10:36:02, Info CSI 00000007@2017/7/5:08:36:02.020 Corruption detection complete. numCorruptions = 0, Disp = 1.
2017-07-05 10:36:02, Info CBS Repr: CSI meta data corruption found, will commit repair transaction if repair is asked.
2017-07-05 10:36:02, Info CBS Ensure CBS corruption flag is clear
2017-07-05 10:36:02, Info CBS Ensure WCP corruption flag is clear
2017-07-05 10:36:02, Info CBS Exec: Processing complete, session(Corruption Detecting): 30602599_1942279522 [HRESULT = 0x00000000 - S_OK]

2017-07-05 09:38:45, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]2017-07-05 09:38:45, Info CBS Failed to OpenPackage using worker session [HRESULT = 0x800f0805]2017-07-05 09:38:45, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]2017-07-05 09:38:45, Info CBS Failed to OpenPackage using worker session [HRESULT = 0x800f0805]2017-07-05 09:39:09, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]2017-07-05 09:39:09, Info CBS Failed to OpenPackage using worker session [HRESULT = 0x800f0805]

2017-07-05 09:39:09, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]2017-07-05 09:39:09, Info CBS Failed to OpenPackage using worker session [HRESULT = 0x800f0805]2017-07-05 09:39:14, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]2017-07-05 09:41:20, Info CBS Failed to internally open package. [HRESULT = 0x800f0805 - CBS_E_INVALID_PACKAGE]

2017-07-05 11:25:38, Info CBS The store corruption status report is incomplete. [HRESULT = 0x80070002 - ERROR_FILE_NOT_FOUND]2017-07-05 11:28:32, Info MIG Include pattern skipped because enumeration root is not present: HKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem [NtfsDisableSpotCorruptionHandling]2017-07-05 11:28:32, Info MIG Merge pattern skipped because enumeration root is not present: HKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem [NtfsDisableSpotCorruptionHandling]2017-07-05 11:45:35, Info CBS The store corruption status report is incomplete. [HRESULT = 0x80070002 - ERROR_FILE_NOT_FOUND]2017-07-05 11:49:21, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\winevt\Channels\Microsoft-Windows-CorruptedFileRecovery-Client/Operational2017-07-05 11:49:21, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\winevt\Channels\Microsoft-Windows-CorruptedFileRecovery-Server/Operational2017-07-05 11:49:25, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\Eventlog\System\Microsoft-Windows-CorruptedFileRecovery-Client2017-07-05 11:49:25, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\Eventlog\System\Microsoft-Windows-CorruptedFileRecovery-Server2017-07-05 12:06:23, Info CBS The store corruption status report is incomplete. [HRESULT = 0x80070002 - ERROR_FILE_NOT_FOUND]2017-07-05 12:06:23, Info CBS The store corruption status report is incomplete. [HRESULT = 0x80070002 - ERROR_FILE_NOT_FOUND]2017-07-05 12:06:23, Info CBS The store corruption status report is incomplete. [HRESULT = 0x80070002 - ERROR_FILE_NOT_FOUND]2017-07-05 12:08:16, Info MIG Include pattern skipped because enumeration root is not present: HKLM\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\FileSystem [NtfsDisableSpotCorruptionHandling]

2017-07-05 12:14:05, Info MIG Object C:\WINDOWS\diagnostics\system\WindowsMediaPlayerMediaLibrary\TS_IsWMPUnavailable.ps1 is excluded from migration because it is a system object.2017-07-05 12:23:52, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\SOFTWARE\WOW6432Node\Microsoft\VSTA\8.0\AD7Metrics\Exception\{63A08714-FC37-11D2-904C-00C04FA302A1}\Native Run-Time Checks\Stack memory corruption2017-07-05 12:23:52, Info MIG Processing Registry: HKLM\SOFTWARE\WOW6432Node\Microsoft\VSTA\8.0\AD7Metrics\Exception\{63A08714-FC37-11D2-904C-00C04FA302A1}\Native Run-Time Checks\Stack pointer corruption

Since there was no failure code to start with those are the search results for CORRUPTION and FAIL.

The next search terms would be abort and abandon.

See if you can generate this log (it may be hidden): administrative command prompt: $Windows.~BT\Sources\Rollback
If you can generate the rollback log please post it with a share link